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  • 北京KET PET:美國(guó)憲法和選舉制度的歷史


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    2020年美國(guó)大選又這樣轟轟烈烈戲劇性地展開(kāi)了, 而這復(fù)雜的美國(guó)選舉制度為什么是這樣設(shè)計(jì)呢?要從200多年前美國(guó)建國(guó)開(kāi)始?xì)v史說(shuō)起。 


    01

    華盛頓交出軍權(quán)

    On December 23, 1783, following the signing of the Treaty of Paris, General George Washington resigns as commander in chief of the Continental Army and retires to his home at Mount Vernon, Virginia.


    獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束,隨著英美和平協(xié)議簽訂, 華盛頓將軍開(kāi)始解散大陸軍。51歲的總司令,抖掉所有塵土,走回他渴望的弗農(nóng)山莊的生活。


    今天美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)山展廳依然掛著一副“華盛頓辭去軍職”的畫(huà)。他身后椅子上搭著一件王袍,表示拒絕了王權(quán)的誘惑。 


    (民權(quán)第一次在沒(méi)有任何保護(hù)的狀態(tài)下超越了強(qiáng)大的軍權(quán)。)


    然而,美國(guó)成立了, 他們渴望已久的自由也得到了, 可是1783年的“美利堅(jiān)合眾國(guó)”, 沒(méi)有統(tǒng)一的貨幣,海關(guān),稅收,政府制度。沒(méi)有總統(tǒng)也沒(méi)有司法權(quán), 根本就不是一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的國(guó)家,倒像是13個(gè)獨(dú)立國(guó)家的松散聯(lián)盟。 


    這個(gè)叫“美國(guó)”的國(guó)家,并不存在!存在的只是13個(gè)獨(dú)立的州或者“邦” ,如何把這13個(gè)“邦”變成一個(gè)國(guó)家,才是真正讓人心力交瘁的歷程。 


    華盛頓走了,人們不得不面對(duì)一個(gè)殘酷的現(xiàn)實(shí),他們需要一個(gè)強(qiáng)有力的政府。 

    02

    美國(guó)憲法歷史  

    A HISTORY OF THE CONSTITUTION


    美國(guó)憲法制定兩位巨人----- 亞歷山大.漢密爾頓和詹姆斯.麥迪遜。 



    Alexander Hamilton

    He was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.He took the lead in the Federal government's funding of the states' debts, as well as establishing the nation's first two de facto central banks, the Bank of North America and the First Bank of the United States, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations with Britain. 

    作為美國(guó)建國(guó)國(guó)父之一,1784年, 漢密爾頓建立了美國(guó)最早的兩家真正意義上的中央銀行體系,北美銀行和美國(guó)第一銀行。

    這個(gè)人看到了紐約作為商業(yè)和金融中心的未來(lái),就是華爾街最早的創(chuàng)辦者。 

    今天的美國(guó)是漢密爾頓200多年前就看到的未來(lái)。

    在除了華盛頓,沒(méi)有人理解他。




    James Madison was an American statesman, diplomat, expansionist, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. He is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the United States Bill of Rights. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers, co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party.


    詹姆斯·麥迪遜(James Madison)是美國(guó)政治家、外交家和開(kāi)國(guó)之父,曾在1809年至1817年間擔(dān)任美國(guó)第四任總統(tǒng)。他被譽(yù)為“憲法之父”,因?yàn)樗谄鸩莺屯苿?dòng)美國(guó)憲法和美國(guó)人權(quán)法案方面發(fā)揮了關(guān)鍵作用。他合寫(xiě)了《聯(lián)邦黨人文集》,與人共同創(chuàng)立了民主黨和共和黨(Democratic-Republican Party)。


    03

    1787憲法的誕生


    The Consitutional Convention of 1787


    Alexander Hamilton brilliantly saved the convention from failure by calling upon Congress to summon all states to be represented at a convention in 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

    亞歷山大·漢密爾頓(Alexander Hamilton)通過(guò)號(hào)召國(guó)會(huì)召集所有州的代表參加1787在賓夕法尼亞州費(fèi)城舉行的大會(huì)。



    The official purpose of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 was to propose amendments to the Articles of Confederation but when the convention convened, the delegates realized that they had two general goals in common: to create a republican form as well as a new constitutional form of government. 

    1787年制憲會(huì)議的正式目的是提出對(duì)《邦聯(lián)條例》的修正案,但當(dāng)會(huì)議召開(kāi)時(shí),代表們意識(shí)到他們有兩個(gè)共同的總體目標(biāo):創(chuàng)建一個(gè)共和政體和一個(gè)新的憲法形式的政府。



    However, the Constitutional delegation consisted of members from all areas of the United States who held varied interests and ideas on how the government should be organized.

    然而,憲法代表團(tuán)由來(lái)自美國(guó)各地的成員組成,他們對(duì)如何組織政府有不同的興趣和想法。


    This important occasion called for the most able men to drop their personal pursuits and come to the aid of their country. 

    這個(gè)重要的時(shí)刻要求最有能力的人放棄他們的個(gè)人追求,來(lái)幫助他們的國(guó)家。


    The caliber of representatives and participants was extraordinarily high -- Thomas Jefferson dubbed everyone present as "demigods." George Washington, enormously prestigious as "the sword of the American revolution," was unanimously elected chairman of the convention.

    代表和與會(huì)者的素質(zhì)都非常高——托馬斯·杰斐遜(Thomas Jefferson)把在場(chǎng)的每個(gè)人都稱為“半神”。以“美國(guó)革命之劍”而享有極高聲望的喬治·華盛頓被一致推選為大會(huì)主席。



    Benjamin Franklin added the experience and urbanity of an elder statesman. James Madison's contributions were so notable that he was dubbed "the Father of the Constitution." Alexander Hamilton and other notable representatives also participated in this history altering event.

    本杰明·富蘭克林作為資深政治家,又老練又文雅。詹姆斯·麥迪遜的貢獻(xiàn)是如此引人注目,以至于他被稱為“憲法之父”。亞歷山大·漢密爾頓和其他著名的代表也參加了這個(gè)改變歷史的活動(dòng)。



    After prolonged debate, the delegates arrived at the "Great Compromise" or "Connecticut Compromise," which formed a new national government with three branches -- executive, legislative and judicial -- as a "checks and balances" system.

    經(jīng)過(guò)長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的辯論,代表們達(dá)成了“康涅狄格妥協(xié)”,該妥協(xié)形成了一個(gè)新的國(guó)家政府----三權(quán)分立,由行政、立法和司法三個(gè)分支組成,作為一個(gè)“制衡”體系。



    They created a new legislative power, a bicameral parliament, with an Upper and a lower house. The Lower House is directly elected by the people, the Upper house is nominated by various parliaments, and the lower House votes.


    他們創(chuàng)造了一種新的立法權(quán)---- 兩院制,國(guó)會(huì)分上議院(參議院)和下議院(眾議院)。下議院由人民直接選舉,上議院由各種議會(huì)提名,下議院投票。眾議院體現(xiàn)民主的威力,參議院體現(xiàn)共和的價(jià)值。兩院制是為了防止過(guò)度民主,保護(hù)少數(shù)人利益的有效手段,這是國(guó)父?jìng)冊(cè)O(shè)計(jì)的思路。 




    The new Constitution also provided for a strong, independent Executive Branch, which included a President and Vice President. 

    新憲法還規(guī)定了一個(gè)強(qiáng)大、獨(dú)立的行政部門(mén),其中包括總統(tǒng)和副總統(tǒng)。


    (P.S  圖為1787 費(fèi)城會(huì)議) 



    The President had a term of four years to institute his programs though he could be re-elected if his performance garnered sufficient support. 

    總統(tǒng)有一個(gè)四年的任期來(lái)建立他的項(xiàng)目,雖然他可以再次當(dāng)選,如果他的表現(xiàn)獲得足夠的支持。


    The president was to be the commander-in-chief of the military and was to have wide powers of appointment to domestic offices, including Supreme Court judges. 

    總統(tǒng)將是軍隊(duì)的總司令,并擁有廣泛的任命國(guó)內(nèi)辦公室的權(quán)力,包括最高法院法官。



    P.S: 在憲法第22修正案之前,總統(tǒng)在理論上是可以無(wú)限期連任連選,但是這個(gè)現(xiàn)象沒(méi)有發(fā)生(只有一位例外), 只因?yàn)槿A盛頓榜樣的力量。 



    04

    選舉人團(tuán)制


     electoral college


    為了最大限度的州權(quán)平等(美國(guó)各州人口并不平衡。幅度太大),麥迪遜提出了“選舉人團(tuán)制”。 


    根據(jù)美國(guó)憲法,美國(guó)總統(tǒng)選舉實(shí)行選舉人團(tuán)制度,總統(tǒng)由各州議會(huì)選出的選舉人團(tuán)選舉產(chǎn)生,而不是由選民直接選舉產(chǎn)生。這一制度于1788年第一次實(shí)行,現(xiàn)已經(jīng)歷了200多年。



    When Americans vote for President and Vice President of the United States, they are actually voting for presidential electors, known collectively as the Electoral College.

    當(dāng)美國(guó)人投票選舉總統(tǒng)和副總統(tǒng)時(shí),他們實(shí)際上是在投票給總統(tǒng)選舉人,這些選舉人統(tǒng)稱為選舉團(tuán)。


    At the beginning of the founding of the United States, transportation and information were underdeveloped, and most people had limited knowledge. They had no overall concept of the Union and had not even heard of presidential candidates from other states. It's easier to vote for the presidential candidate in your state, which makes it harder for the winning President to garner nationwide support and appeal to the public.

    美國(guó)立國(guó)之初,交通、信息還不發(fā)達(dá),絕大部分民眾認(rèn)知有限,對(duì)聯(lián)邦根本沒(méi)有整體概念,甚至沒(méi)有聽(tīng)說(shuō)過(guò)其他州的總統(tǒng)候選人。因此更看重自己本州的利益,很容易為本州的總統(tǒng)候選人投票,這樣一來(lái),獲勝的總統(tǒng)很難獲得全國(guó)范圍的支持,無(wú)法服眾。


    On the other hand, if popular elections were held, large states with large populations would dominate, while smaller states would have little chance of winning. Virginia, for example, had as many voters as the other five states combined, by a wide margin. In a popular vote, the President would probably come from Virginia.

    另一方面,如果全民直選,人口眾多的大州將占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位,而較小州的總統(tǒng)候選人勝率變得很小。比如當(dāng)時(shí)的弗吉尼亞州的選民是其他5個(gè)州的選民總和,差距極為懸殊。直接投票的話,很可能總統(tǒng)出自弗吉尼亞。

    正是考慮到上面兩點(diǎn),美國(guó)開(kāi)國(guó)元?jiǎng)?、也是賓夕法尼亞州的代表詹姆斯·威爾遜(James Wilson)提出了各方兼顧的“選舉人團(tuán)”方案。各州選舉出唯一的結(jié)果后,選舉人再代表本州民意集中投票,簡(jiǎn)單直接,一目了然。同時(shí)選舉人團(tuán)制度限制了大州的影響,把小州的民意捆綁銷(xiāo)售,提高了小州的話語(yǔ)權(quán),這樣就解決了前面說(shuō)的困難。



    今天,每個(gè)州的選舉人人數(shù)從3人(哥倫比亞特區(qū))到55人(加州)不等(根據(jù) 地方的人口比例),總共538人。要當(dāng)選美國(guó)總統(tǒng),候選人需要270張選舉人票的多數(shù)票。



    After much debate, the plan was ratified by a majority of states and written into the Constitution. The founding father of the United States, George Washington, was elected the first President in 1789 by the Electoral College. He is widely expected to be the only President in American history to receive all electoral votes.


    這個(gè)方案經(jīng)過(guò)激烈討論后,得到了多數(shù)州的同意,寫(xiě)進(jìn)了憲法。美國(guó)國(guó)父華盛頓在1789年經(jīng)過(guò)選舉人團(tuán)投票,當(dāng)選為首任總統(tǒng)。他是美國(guó)歷史上唯一獲得全部選舉人票的總統(tǒng),可謂眾望所歸。


    當(dāng)然,今天選舉細(xì)節(jié)規(guī)定也是在后來(lái)不斷修繕中形成的,但大致依然保持開(kāi)國(guó)最初的設(shè)定。 



    這種選舉制度又有什么好處呢?一句話來(lái)概括的話,就是既能尊重多數(shù),又能照顧少數(shù)。




    2016年川普戰(zhàn)勝希拉里。在全國(guó)范圍內(nèi),川普得票率45.97%,希拉里得票率48.06%,總體上川普落后多達(dá)300萬(wàn)票,但是川普贏得了30個(gè)州的勝利,得到了304張選舉人票。而希拉里雖然總票數(shù)領(lǐng)先很多,但是全部是集中在幾個(gè)人口大州,最終僅僅贏得20個(gè)州的227張選舉人票,痛失選舉


    與此高度雷同的還有2000年大選,民主黨戈?duì)栐谌珖?guó)范圍內(nèi)領(lǐng)先小布什50多萬(wàn)票,已經(jīng)贏得266張選舉人票,再贏一州即可獲勝。但僅僅是因?yàn)樵诜鹆_里達(dá)輸了區(qū)區(qū)537票,結(jié)果被落后的小布什拿到佛羅里達(dá)的25張選舉人票,一舉反超,痛失選舉。戈?duì)枮榱酥匦掠?jì)票上訴到了最高法院,結(jié)果敗訴。這樣的例子在美國(guó)大選歷史還出現(xiàn)過(guò)3次,分別是1824、1876、1888大選。這種奇特的景象在其他的國(guó)家選舉中是見(jiàn)不到的。而極少數(shù)地區(qū)的極少數(shù)選票就能決定大選結(jié)果的情況,也只有在這種制度下才會(huì)出現(xiàn)。


    05

    建國(guó)國(guó)父

    至此,《美國(guó)憲法》的制定者和《獨(dú)立宣言》的作者,就是我們常說(shuō)的美國(guó)“建國(guó)國(guó)父”,其中最重要的七位以年齡長(zhǎng)幼為序排列是


    Benjamin Franklin 本杰明.富蘭克林:政治家,科學(xué)家和外交家


    George Washington 喬治.華盛頓:大陸軍總司令和第一位總統(tǒng)


    John Adams約翰.亞當(dāng)斯:第二位總統(tǒng)


    Thomas Jefferson托馬斯.杰斐遜:第三位總統(tǒng)



    John Jay 約翰.杰伊:首任最高法院首席大法官



    James Madison 詹姆斯.麥迪遜:第四位總統(tǒng),憲法之父


    Alexander Hamilton亞歷山大.漢密爾頓:美利堅(jiān)首任財(cái)政部長(zhǎng)

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